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地球信息科学学报 >

2016 , Vol. 18 >Issue 12: 1583 - 1587

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1047.2016.01583

地球信息科学理论与方法

面向人类行为研究的时空GIS

  • 陈洁 ,
  • 萧世伦 ,
  • 陆锋
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  • 1. 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所 资源与环境信息系统国家重点实验室,北京 100101
  • 2. 美国田纳西大学地理系,诺克斯维尔市 37996-0925

作者简介：陈 洁（1982-）,女,湖北武汉人,博士,助研,研究方向为地理时空大数据分析。E-mail:

收稿日期: 2016-08-08

  要求修回日期: 2016-09-30

  网络出版日期: 2016-12-20

基金资助

国家自然科学基金项目（41571431、41231171、41421001）

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A Space-time GIS Approach for Human Behavior Studies

  • CHEN Jie ,
  • SHAW Shih-Lung ,
  • LU Feng
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  • 1. State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
  • 2. Department of Geography, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0925, USA
*Corresponding author: CHEN Jie, E-mail:

Received date: 2016-08-08

  Request revised date: 2016-09-30

  Online published: 2016-12-20

Copyright

《地球信息科学学报》编辑部 所有
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摘要

人类时空行为是地理学、物理学、规划学、流行病学等多学科共同关注的研究主题。时空GIS面向地理时空数据的建模与分析需求,注重时间与空间的一体化表达,为人类行为特征分析与规律探索提供基础方法支撑。然而,现有时空GIS在人类行为时空过程表达以及人类行为与时空场境交互分析等方面存在不足。本文通过深度融合时间地理学理论,提出一种面向人类行为研究的时空GIS方法,以丰富与完善现有的时空GIS方法体系。在深入解读时间地理学中“情境”、“企划”等核心概念的基础上,本文分别从情境要素存在性动态表达、情境要素相关性动态理解及情境要素变化的动态感知等方面探讨拓展现有时空GIS方法的可行性。

关键词： 时空GIS; 人类行为; 时间地理学; 时空场境; 情境

本文引用格式

陈洁 , 萧世伦 , 陆锋 . 面向人类行为研究的时空GIS[J]. 地球信息科学学报, 2016 , 18(12) : 1583 -1587 . DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1047.2016.01583

Abstract

The study of spatial and temporal characteristics of human behavior has been widely noted among different disciplines such as geography, physics, planning and epidemiology. By integrating spatial and temporal dimensions, the space-time GIS provides a fundamental approach for the analysis and exploration of human behavior characteristics. However, the existing space-time GIS is not strong in some aspects, including representation of human behavior process in space and time as well as interactive analysis of human behavior in space-time contexts. This paper proposes a space-time GIS approach for human behavior studies, by bringing some core concepts of time geography such as "diorama" and "project", into space-time GIS, and discusses the potential and challenges from three aspects, including dynamic representation, correlation and variation perception of geographic entity in space and time.

Key words： space-time GIS; human behavior; time geography; space-time context; diorama

1 引言

纷繁复杂的人类行为构筑了五彩斑斓的人类社会,深入理解人类行为有助于诠释复杂的人类社会经济现象。当前,人类行为研究已成为地理学、物理学、规划学、流行病学等众多学科共同关注的主题[1-4]。时空地理信息系统（Space-Time Geographic Information System,以下简称“时空GIS”）作为地球信息科学的重要研究方向之一,面向地理时空数据的建模与分析需求,注重时间与空间的一体化表达[5-6],为人类行为特征分析与规律探索提供基础方法支撑。然而,随着城市化和社会化进程的不断加快,特别是大数据时代下获取海量、连续、高精度的人类行为时空数据成为现实,在这样的背景下,人类行为研究越来越重视人类环境的实时感知、强调人类与环境之间的动态互动,时空GIS需要引入新的理念重新思考人类时空行为的丰富内涵。

2 时空GIS的人本导向

GIS面向人类智慧圈,旨在通过信息流调控人流、物流和能流,以服务于人类社会的可持续发 展[7]。半个世纪以来,GIS在空间表达与分析方面的理论研究和实际应用得到了飞速的发展[8]。然而,时间是事物的基本属性[9],一切事物在流动的过程当中,无不打上了时间的烙印。GIS客观上要求地理信息不仅能表征人流、物流和能流的运动状态,即对于它们的空间区位特征包括位置、形状和属性特征的描述,而且能表征人流、物流和能流的运动方式,即对于它们的区位特征在时间上所呈现的运动过程和变化规律的解释[10]。因此,整合时间与空间的时空GIS是GIS研究创新发展的必然趋势。
针对时空GIS研究,近年来国内外学者围绕时空数据模型开展了大量的研究和实践。在国外,基于早期积累,Langran于1992年撰写的《Time in Geographic Information Systems》[11]被学界誉为时空GIS研究的第一部专著[12],书中全面地比较了多种时空数据模型。随后,Peuquet的著作《Representation of Space and Time》从人类对时空哲学的理解及计算机对时空信息的处理两个层面系统地评述了地理信息时空一体化表达[13]。进入大数据时代,Goodchild近期在“Prospects for a Space-Time GIS”一文中将时空GIS提升至“一门整合的科学”的高度,同时还预示了大数据时代下由于研究问题多样性及时空数据不一致性可能导致通用时空GIS难以快速成形[5]。在国内,时空GIS研究也经历了从早期对时态GIS概念的全面引介[14-15],到对时空GIS研究进展的系统论述[16],再到应位置服务技术快速发展及天空地各类传感器广泛应用时代需要而创新提出的实时GIS时空数据模型[17],以及最近集研究团队之力总结归纳而成的时空数据分析方法体系[18]等多个跨越式发展阶段。时空GIS相关研究成果还有很多,这些成果无不体现出学界对于该研究的极大重视和为之所付出的长期努力。
人本化趋势下,人类行为研究日益关注人与社会的实际问题,视野上逐渐从宏观走向微观,方法上也越来越强调人类行为的时空连续性以及人与环境互动的系统性。面向人类行为研究,时空GIS为表达与分析人类行为和自然、社会环境在时间和空间上的复杂关系提供独特的研究视角,然而现有的时空GIS方法在支持人类行为研究方面存在若干缺陷。一方面,现有时空GIS缺乏对人类行为时空场境（space-time context）的动态特征及变化过程的表达能力。人类行为的产生和发展离不开其身处的时空场境,对时空场境中的地理实体的动态表达是客观认识人类行为的重要基础。现有时空GIS多将时间作为地理实体的一个普通属性,这种“时间”+“空间”的简单组合方式,仍然偏重于空间数据的表达与分析,对时间及时空数据的处理能力相对薄弱,难以支持复杂地理实体的动态特征表达及时空过程分析。另一方面,现有时空GIS中,作为行为主体的“人”,缺乏对时空场境变化的动态感知能力。人类行为时空场境中的人、地、物等各种地理实体彼此相关,它们之间时空关系的构建及其与行为主体“人”的联系是有效引导人类行为的重要保障。现有时空GIS多是从计算机表达角度出发而非面向地学问题,缺少对地理实体时空语义的理解,难以支持行为主体“人”与时空场境的联系与互动。因此,现有时空GIS亟需得到新的发展,以提升人类行为时空过程表达以及人类行为与时空场境交互分析等能力。

3 时间地理学的深度融合

时间地理学是20世纪60年代后期由瑞典地理学家、区域规划学家托斯特·哈格斯特朗（Torsten Hägerstrand）提出并由以他为核心的隆德大学研究团队发展起来的,旨在表现和解释时空过程中人类行为与人居环境之间相互关系的一种方法论[19-20]。时间地理学理论框架中有3个核心概念[21]：① 路径（path）,强调事物发展的连续性,认为世间所有事物（matter）包括人类在内,都处于不断变化之中;② 企划（project）,强调人类行为的目的性,认为人类富有记忆、想象、情感及意图,会根据事物的发展变化,有序地组织各项活动,合理地安排各项事情,使其心中的目标得以顺利实现;③ 情境（diorama）,强调事物的存在性（thereness）和相关性,认为世间万物不论是有形的如一个人、一只猫、一栋楼,还是无形的如一项制度、一个思想、一种情感,首先它们都是客观存在的,然后它们又是彼此交织、相互作用的。因此,情境这一概念,既容纳了活动主体的“人”、人类行为时空场境中的所有人、地、物,还包括了人类社会的精神产物。本文主要针对有形的人、地、物等地理实体展开讨论。
时间地理学理论还包含其他一些概念。在这些概念的背后,蕴含着非常本质的世界观与生态发展观[22-23]。它认为,世间万物都需要存在的空间（room）[24],而一定空间其容纳能力是有限的（limit）[25]。然而,受到社会经济驱动、技术革新的影响,人造事物在不断充斥着现有的空间,势必会影响人类与自然界的生存状态（living condition）,并不断改变人居环境（transformation of habitats）。由此,人类必须很好地了解事物存在的状态（material conditions）以及人类活动的结果（consequence of human actions）,才能对人类赖以生存的空间进行合理的、可持续的发展规划,以避免那些人类时常会发生的有意的行为所产生的无意的、不良的后果（unintended outcomes of intentional actions）。以上概念奠定了时间地理学的理论根基,而以上世界观和生态发展观铸就了时间地理学的思想灵魂。时间地理学正是一部真正有人参与、面向时空过程、以人与自然和谐发展为宗旨的地理学典籍,并在过去半个世纪里、在世界范围内对现代地理学的发展产生了极大地影响。
得益于时间地理学符号化表达方式的直观性,加上近年GIS数据处理能力的大幅提升,时间地理学与时空GIS已实现初步融合。面对复杂的人地关系,时间地理学采用了一种相对简洁的符号系统表达方式（notation system）[26-27],以平面表达地理空间、纵轴表达时间,构建时空路径（space-time path）表示人类行为的连续变化,构建时空棱柱（space-time prism）表示人类行为的时空范围。目前,该符号系统已融入时空GIS,并用于人类个体行为特征的时空表达及人类群体行为规律的探索分析。例如,Miller等在GIS中实现了时空棱柱的可视化[28]并基于时空棱柱开展了时空GIS的不确定性研究[29]、Kwan等在GIS中实现了时空路径的可视化[30]并基于个人GPS轨迹开展了人类行为模式表达[31]、Shaw等研究了物理-虚拟混合空间中人类活动与互动的时空GIS框架[32-34]、Chen等基于时空GIS开发了人类出行行为的轨迹聚类方法[35]、Fang等则基于时空GIS提出了时变时空棱柱模型并开展了群体行程规划及优化[36]。
大数据及普适计算时代为时空GIS与时间地理学理论的深度融合发展带来了新的机遇。时空GIS需更注重人类行为与时空场境的结合。① “情境”的融入。时间地理学中的“情境”所展现出来的是一幅充满生机和韵律的人群移动生活图景。情境里的人、地、物彼此相关。其中,人和人是相互联系的,白天人们相聚办公室共同讨论工作问题,晚上人们回家享受天伦之乐;人和物是相互联系的,工人在工厂工作需要借助必须的工具和机器,学生在学校念书离不开书本和电脑;人和地是相互联系的,家、办公室、学校是人们日常生活的主要场所,人们因为各自需要前往不同地点开展活动,在地理空间上形成一次次的聚集和扩散;地和地之间是相互联系的,人群在不同地点的聚散有先有后,人群相聚的地点充满了生机,散去的地点恢复了平静,人群聚散的先后赋予了地与地之间动与静的更替。时空GIS如何表达情境中的各种人、地、物及其相互关系、如何跟踪它们的变化是关键。② “企划”的融入。人们基于某个目的而作出某种企划,然后有序地组织和安排各项活动和事务,并随事态发展不断地进行调整,最终使该企划得以实现。时空GIS如何理解活动主体“人”的目的,动态感知与“企划”有关的各种“情境”变化并加以指导“人”的行为是关键。

4 发展面向人类行为研究的时空GIS

深度融合时间地理学理论,面向人类行为研究的时空GIS可在以下3个方面开展深入的研究。
（1）情境要素存在性动态表达
情境要素包含了人、地、物等各种有形的地理实体。情境要素的存在性侧重于表现情境中的人、地、物等各种地理实体的本身特征。Sinton依据地理实体位置、形状、属性3个变量随时间推移是否变化进行排列组合,将地理实体划分为8种类型,例如,位置、形状和属性均不改变的地理实体如道路交通限速标志,位置改变、形状和属性不变的地理实体如人、私家车,位置、形状和属性均发生改变的地理实体如飓风等[37]。时空GIS需要针对各种地理实体类型发展多元化的时空数据模型,在时空数据建模过程中,充分体现复杂地理实体的本身特征,动态表达复杂地理实体的发展变化过程。
（2）情境要素相关性动态理解
情境要素不仅客观存在,而且彼此相关。情境要素的相关性性侧重于构建情境中的人、地、物等各种地理实体之间的各种联系。地理实体之间具有属性、空间、时间三种关联方式。时空GIS需要加深对地理实体时空语义的理解,特别是地理实体之间的空间关系（空间几何关系、空间拓扑关系）与时态关系（时态拓扑关系、时间方向关系）的表达。在此基础上,还需要进一步开展时空GIS多维索引与查询技术研究,通过提高时空查询效率提升时空GIS的应用效果。
（3）情境要素变化的动态感知
大数据时代为情境中接入海量、实时、动态的信息提供多种数据来源。如何及时捕获情境中关键的地理实体的时空变化特征,并将相关的位置和重要的信息及时地推送给行为主体“人”以有效引导个人未来的行为朝着正确的方向推进,是时空GIS价值的重要体现。因此,时空GIS需要深入开展针对行为主体“人”的位置更新策略研究,实现对行为主体“人”的连续跟踪和实时定位,同时深入开展人群移动轨迹数据挖掘方法研究,实现人群移动聚集与扩散时空过程的动态识别及时空模式的有效提取。

5 结论与讨论

本文立足于地球信息科学研究视角,面向人类行为研究,通过对时空GIS和时间地理学理论在时空观、支持人类行为表达与分析等方面的阐述,提出一种深度融入时间地理学、面向人类行为以完善现有时空GIS理论与方法的尝试。通过诠释时间地理学理论中的“情境”、“企划”等核心概念,分别从情境要素存在性动态表达、情境要素相关性动态理解及情境要素变化的动态感知等方面深入探讨了拓展现有时空GIS理论与方法的可行性。
此外,时间地理学中“情境”这一概念,除了包括人、地、物等各种有形的地理实体,还涉及人类社会的精神产物,如一项制度、一个思想、一种情感,它们都是客观存在并彼此相关的。相对于各种地理实体,人类行为同样会受到社会制度、部门规范乃至某种思想散播的影响。如何在时空GIS中表达无形的精神产物,如何利用大数据时代背景下城市中“泛在传感器”所产生的人类行为数据,更加深刻地理解人类社会发展形态及演变过程,值得深入思考。
最后,有关时空GIS研究本身,从侧重空间的传统GIS到整合时空的GIS研究视角的转变,还存在很多挑战和困难。正如Goodchild和宫鹏院士在“中美科学研究中时空问题的视角”一文中所说,以汽车为例,它花了许多年来摆脱马车与车辆的隐喻,新技术的潜力才得到充分认识,相同的模式显然也会影响时间与GIS的集成[38]。较之传统GIS,加入时间维度的时空GIS将会引发一场“整合的科学”革命[5]。针对GIS研究领域各方面的重要科学问题,诸如时空数据的可视化、时空数据的不确定性、时空数据的尺度表达,都将对时空GIS理论与方法的进一步发展与完善起到重要的推动作用。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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关美宝,郭文伯,柴彦威.人类移动性与健康研究中的时间问题[J].地理科学进展,2013,32(9):1344-1351.随着地理信息科学的发展,地理学围绕着社会热点问题不断向其他学科交叉渗透,同时学科的交叉也为地理学研究本身注入了热量。空间一直是地理学研究中的基本问题,而时间与空间密不可分,从时间维度研究人类移动性及其丰富内涵具有重要意义。本文在总结人类移动性热点问题的基础上,重点从时间维度探讨了可达性、出行体验与幸福感、人类健康与疾病等问题的研究内容和方法,并从低收入者社区医疗保健可达性研究和阿帕拉契亚乡村地区吸烟者影响因素研究等案例进行详细阐释,最后对人类移动性与健康研究的发展方向进行了展望。

DOI

[ Kwan M-P, Guo W B, Chai Y W.Temporally integrated human mobility and health research[J]. Progress in Geography, 2013,32(9):1344-1351. ]

[4]
周涛,韩筱璞,闫小勇,等.人类行为时空特性的统计力学[J].电子科技大学学报,2013,42(4):481-540.人类行为的定量化分析,特别是时空统计规律的挖掘和建模,是当前统计物理与复杂性科学研究的热点。对人类行为的深入理解,有助于解释若干复杂的社会经济现象,并在舆情监控、疾病防治、交通规划、呼叫服务、信息推荐等方面产生应用价值。该文综述人类行为时间和空间特性方面的研究进展,内容包括人类行为时间特性的实证分析和建模,人类行为空间特性的实证分析和建模,以及人类行为统计分析的应用研究。该文还将评述当前研究存在的亮点和不足,指出若干亟待解决的重大理论和实际问题。

DOI

[ Zhou T, Han X, Yan X Y, et al. Statistical mechanics on temporal and spatial activities of human[J]. Journal of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 2013,42(4):481-540. ]

[5]
Goodchild M F.Prospects for a space-time GIS[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2013,103(5):1072-1077.Space and time frame all aspects of the discipline of geography. Integration is normally interpreted by geographers as a straddling of the environmental-social divide, but a more profound interpretation stresses the issues involved in coupling environmental and social processes: a science of integration rather than an integration of sciences. Seven examples of distinct data types and scientific questions are examined, leading to the conclusion that a space-time geographic information system is unlikely to emerge in the near future. Instead, attention should focus on the systematic study of the issues involved in integration through the formal environment of a computational system.

DOI

[6]
萧世伦,方志祥.从时空GIS视野来定量分析人类行为的思考[J].武汉大学学报·信息科学版,2014,39(6):667-670.从面向城市科学发展所必须的人类行为研究需求出发，从时空GIS的视野来看人类行为研究的基础问题与研究方法，剖析时空GIS对定量分析人类行为研究中的理想与现实间的鸿沟，以及所存在的理论与方法挑战，总结了时空GIS支撑人类行为研究的能力与不足，为大数据时代的人类行为研究前沿探索拓展思路。

DOI

[ Shaw S-L, Fang Z X.Rethinking human behavior research from the perspective of space-time GIS[J]. Geomatics and Information Science of Wuhan University, 2014,39(6):667-670. ]

[7]
陈述彭,陈星.地球信息科学的理解与实践[J].地球信息科学,2004,6(1):4-10.地球信息科学的研究对象是人类智慧圈;其任务是以信息流调控人流、物流和能量流的人地关系,服务于和平与发展。同时论述了地球信息科学的理论与方法,以实例作了深刻分析,并提出用地学信息图谱的方法认识自然、掌握自然规律,反演过去、预测未来的观点。最后呼吁GIS领域应尽快引进格网计算技术,推动地球信息科学发展。

DOI

[ Chen S P, Chen X.The cognition and practice of Geo-information Science[J]. Geo-information Science 2004,6(1):4-10. ]

[8]
Hua Y X, Wu L X, Ben J. Progress of Geospatial cognition and geospatial expression[R]. In: The Geographical Society of China. (Ed.), Report on Advances in Geography. Science and Technology of China Press, Beijing, 2014:45-61.

[9]
张元仲. 时间是什么?[J]科学世界,2009,(6):1.

[ Zhang Y Z.What is time?[J]. Newton, 2009,(6):1. ]

[10]
周成虎,鲁学军.对地球信息科学的思考[J].地理学报,1998,53(4):372-380.

DOI

[ Zhou C H, Lu X J.Preliminary discussion on Geo-Information Science[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 1998,53(4):372-380. ]

[11]
Langran G.Time in geographic information system[M]. Washington DC: Taylor & Francis London, 1992.

[12]
陈新保,李宋年,朱建军,等.时空数据模型综述[J].地理科学进展,2009,28(1):10-17.虽然相对传统的GIS数据模型而言,人们对时空数据模型的研究起步较晚,但是大量的时空数据模型已经被提出了。在综述已有时空数据模型时,就如何区别时空数据模型的异同,众多研究人员和学者更多地是比较模型优缺点或罗列和陈述各模型针对某一案例的实践和应用,而没有阐述模型间的本质区别,没有过多地解释模型扩展及其关联性,也就无法跟踪已有模型的扩展、变异和发展趋势,最终导致在选择模型的应用、实践和整合其他非-时空数据模型时,不能做出最优抉择。与众多相关时空数据模型的综述文献不同,本文进一步提升和归纳已有模型,主要集中叙述众多相关时空数据模型的扩展和关联性,阐述模型间的本质区别,呈现模型的演变过程,从而为人们在应用和实践时空数据模型时提供科学的指导,为模型的扩展和新模型的研究提供理论依据和参考。

DOI

[ Chen X B, Li S N, Zhu J J, et al. Spatiotemporal data models and their extensions: a review[J]. Progress in Geography, 2009,28(1):10-17. ]

[13]
Peuquet D J.Representations of space and time[M]. New York: The Guilford Press, 2002.

[14]
张祖勋,黄明智.时态GIS的概念、功能和应用[J].测绘通报,1995,(2):12-14.现今的ＧＩＳ大多没有经济合理的数据更新机制，不能模拟和预测地理系统随时间的变化．近几年发展起来的时态ＧＩＳ旨在处理地理信息中的时间成分，已成为ＧＩＳ研究和应用的重要领域之一．本文介绍时态ＧＩＳ的概念、功能和应用．

[ Zhang Z X, Huang M Z.Concepts, functions and applications of temporal GIS[J]. Bulletin of Surveying and Mapping, 1995,(2):12-14. ]

[15]
吴信才,曹志月.时态GIS的基本概念、功能及实现方法.[J]地球科学-中国地质大学学报,2002,27(3):241-245.数据在具有空间性的同时亦具有 时间性 ,时态地理信息系统是具备处理数据时间性功能的地理信息系统 .简要介绍了时态GIS中的时间、时间粒度、时间戳、应答时间等基本概念及其分析、更新、显示等功能 ,以及时空数据表示、不确定性、多标度等时态GIS的相关问题 .重点讨论了时态GIS的 2个基本数据模型 :关系模型和面向对象模型 .关系模型具有语义丰富、理论完善、高效灵活等特点 ,从而使人们开始尝试在关系模型中加入时间维 ,并利用关系代数和查询语言来处理时态数据 ,关系模型包括归档保存、时间片、记录级时间戳等实现方法 .面向对象模型提供了聚合、关联等机制 ,易于支持时态GIS中的各种时空数据 ,面向对象模型包括OSAM/T模型和InithOO模型等 .

DOI

[ Wu X C, Cao Z Y.Basic conception, function and implementation of temporal GIS[J]. Earth Science-Journal of China University of Geosciences, 2002,27(3):241-245. ]

[16]
王家耀,魏海平,成毅,等.时空GIS的研究与进展[J].海洋测绘,2004,24(5):1-4.时空GIS是建立在时态数据库、GIS、人工智能等基础上的一种综合型应用性技术，其研究对象是时空世界中遵循着诞生、成长、生存，直至死亡等自然规律的事物和现象的时空信息。虽然时空GIS在理论和实践等环节的研究还不十分成熟，但它是未来GIS发展的一个必然趋势。本文主要在介绍时空GIS的研究意义的基础上，总结概括了时空GIS的概念、发展历史和现状，并对时空GIS研究的难点和方向进行了剖析。

[ Wang J Y, Wei H P, Cheng Y, et al. The research and development of spatio-temporal GIS[J]. Hydrographic Surveying and Charting, 2004,24(5):1-4. ]

[17]
龚健雅,李小龙,吴华意.实时GIS时空数据模型[J].测绘学报,2014,43(3):226-232.为满足动态目标与传感器等实时观测数据获取、存储、管理、分析与可视化的要求，需要发展一种新型地理信息系统—实时GIS。本文根据实时GIS中各种地理要素的特点以及存贮管理要求，提出了一种面向动态地理对象与动态过程模拟的实时GIS时空数据模型，它将时空过程、地理对象、事件、事件类型、状态、观测等相关要素整合在一个时空数据模型中。基于该模型研发了新一代实时GIS，并以四种动态地理对象（包括移动对象、原位传感器对象、视频对象和过程模拟对象）的时空数据的实时接入、存储与可视化为例，验证的模型的可行性。

[ Gong J Y, Li X L, Wu H Y.Spatiotemporal data model for real-time GIS[J]. Acta Geodaetica et Cartographica Sinica, 2014,43(3):226-232. ]

[18]
王劲峰,葛咏,李连发,等.地理学时空数据分析方法[J].地理学报,2014,69(9):1326-1345.随着地理空间观测数据的多年积累,地球环境、社会和健康数据监测能力的增强,地理信息系统和计算机网络的发展,时空数据集大量生成,时空数据分析实践呈现快速增长.本文对此进行了分析和归纳,总结了时空数据分析的7 类主要方法,包括:时空数据可视化,目的是通过视觉启发假设和选择分析模型;空间统计指标的时序分析,反映空间格局随时间变化;时空变化指标,体现时空变化的综合统计量;时空格局和异常探测,揭示时空过程的不变和变化部分;时空插值,以获得未抽样点的数值;时空回归,建立因变量和解释变量之间的统计关系;时空过程建模,建立时空过程的机理数学模型;时空演化树,利用空间数据重建时空演化路径.通过简述这些方法的基本原理、输入输出、适用条件以及软件实现,为时空数据分析提供工具和方法手段.

DOI

[ Wang J F, Ge Y, Li L F, et al. Spatiotemporal data analysis in geography[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2014,69(9):1326-1345. ]

[19]
Hägerstrand T.What about people in regional science?[J]. Papers of the Regional Science Association, 1970,24(1):7-21.No Abstract available for this article.

DOI

[20]
Hägerstrand T.What about nature in regional science?[M]. In: Lundqvist L, Persson L-O. (Eds.), Visions and Strategies in European Integration: A North European Perspective. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993:155-161.

[21]
Hägerstrand T.Diorama, path and project. Diorama, path and project[J]. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 1982,73:323-329.We suggest the Wigner distribution (WD) for the analysis of 2-D images. The WD can be used to rigorously define a local power-spectrum at each point of an image. Furthermore, an invariant representation of a given image can he obtained by applying a complex-logarithmic (CL) conformal mapping to the spatial-frequency domain of the WD. The representation is such that all local spectra are invariant, within a linear shift, with respect to linear transformations of the image. A discrete WD has been implemented and results are shown. We next describe how the same CL-mapped WD of a scalar or vector field could be used for binocular disparity and motion analysis, respectively, where the goal is object recognition.

DOI

[22]
Hägerstrand T.In search for the sources of concepts[M]. In: Buttimer A. (Ed.), The Practice of Geography. Longman, Harlow, 1983:238-256.

[23]
Hägerstrand T.The two vistas[J]. Geografiska Annaler, 2004,86B(4):315-323.First page of article

DOI

[24]
Hägerstrand T.Time-geography: focus on the corporeality of man, society and environment. In: Aida S. (Ed.), The Science and Praxis of Complexity[D]. The United Nations University, Tokyo: 1985:193-216.

[25]
Hägerstrand T.Reflections on “what about people in regional science?”[J]. Papers of the Regional Science Association, 1989,66:1-6.The paper is the text of a speech delivered to the opening session of the Twenty-Eighth European Congress of the Regional Science Association in Stockholm in August 1988. It reflects on an earlier address (H盲gerstrand 1970) in the light of numerous comments and criticisms made during the interim period.

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[26]
Lenntorp B.Path, prism, project, pocket and population: an introduction[J]. Geografiska Annaler, 2004,86B(4):223-226.First page of article

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[27]
Shaw S L.Guest editorial introduction: time geography-its past, present and future[J]. Journal of Transport Geography, 2012,23:1-4.

DOI

[28]
Miller H J.Modeling accessibility using space-time prism concepts within geographic information systems[J]. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 1991,5(3):287-301.The space-time Of time geographical framework is a powerful perspective from which to analyse human behaviour. One of the central concepts in this framework is the space-time prism, which models individual accessibility to an environment. In this paper, the derivation and manipulation of space-time prism concepts within a geographical information system (GIS) are discussed. The required system inputs and desired outputs are identified and a generic GIS based procedure is presented Given these basic requirements, issues are discussed which can determine the feasibility of current GIS technology to handle the derivation of space-time prism concepts.

DOI

[29]
Miller H J, Bridwell S A.A field-based theory for time geography[J]. Annals of the Association of American Geogrpahers, 2009,99:149-175.Classic time geography is powerful but rigid, admitting only uniform travel velocities. Computational time geographic methods that resolve the uniform velocity assumption through transportation networks or isochrones only partially address this weakness and do not have a rigorous theoretical foundation. This article develops an analytical time geographic theory for the case where travel velocities vary continuously across space. Using the continuous transportation or urban fields tradition in quantitative geography and regional science, this article formulates analytical definitions of the space-time path and prism for the case where unobserved components are characterized by minimum cost curves through an inverse velocity field rather than straight line segments through a uniform velocity plane. This provides a geometrically and visually oriented approach to capturing complex velocities that complements existing methods. Time geographic fields also generalize time geography as the classic and isochrone versions are special cases; these now have a rigorous analytical foundation. It also can extend the network approach by treating links as regions with continuously varying velocities. Time geographic fields are also useful for nonnetwork-constrained phenomena such as movement through terrain, water, and air. This article illustrates the approach using a computational implementation based on a lattice approximation.

DOI

[30]
Kwan M P.Interactive geovisualization of activity-travel patterns using three-dimensional geographical information systems: a methodological exploration with a large data set[J]. Transportation Research C, 2000,8:185-203.A major difficulty in the analysis of disaggregate activity-travel behavior in the past arises from the many interacting dimensions involved (e.g. location, timing, duration and sequencing of trips and activities). Often, the researcher is forced to decompose activity-travel patterns into their component dimensions and focus only on one or two dimensions at a time, or to treat them as a multidimensional whole using multivariate methods to derive generalized activity-travel patterns. This paper describes several GIS-based three-dimensional (3D) geovisualization methods for dealing with the spatial and temporal dimensions of human activity-travel patterns at the same time while avoiding the interpretative complexity of multivariate pattern generalization or recognition methods. These methods are operationalized using interactive 3D GIS techniques and a travel diary data set collected in the Portland (Oregon) metropolitan region. The study demonstrates several advantages in using these methods. First, significance of the temporal dimension and its interaction with the spatial dimension in structuring the daily space-time trajectories of individuals can be clearly revealed. Second, they are effective tools for the exploratory analysis of activity diary data that can lead to more focused analysis in later stages of a study. They can also help the formulation of more realistic computational or behavioral travel models.

DOI

[31]
Kwan M P, Lee J., Geovisualization of human activity patterns using 3D GIS: a time-geographic approach. In: Goodchild M F, Janelle D G. (Eds.), Spatially Integrated Social Science: Examples in Best Practice[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003:48-66.

[32]
Yu H, Shaw S L.Exploring potential human activities in physical and virtual spaces: a spatio-temporal GIS approachOxford. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 2008,22:409-430.Today, the opportunity for potential human activity has gone beyond physical space to virtual space. Based on a proposed conceptual framework that models the relationships between physical and virtual spaces, this paper presents an attempt to adjust the space–time prism concept of H01gerstrand's time geography to identify potential activity opportunities in virtual space, focusing on the virtual space access channels available in physical space. A three‐dimensional (3D) spatio‐temporal Geographic Information System (GIS) design has been developed in this research to accommodate the adjusted space–time prism concept to support the representation, visualization, and analysis of potential human activities and interactions in physical and virtual spaces using the prism representation. Following the design, a prototype system has been successfully implemented in a 3D GIS environment. Such a system can provide powerful analytical tools for studies related to potential human activities and applications such as lo...

DOI

[33]
Shaw S L, Yu H.A GIS-based time-geographic approach of studying individual activities and interactions in a hybrid physical-virtual space[J]. Journal of Transport Geography, 2009,17:141-149.Modern information and communication technologies (ICT) are changing human activity and travel patterns that could have significant implications to our everyday lives and the human organization of space. Time geography, which examines human activities under various constraints in a space–time context, provides a useful framework to analyze the complex spatio-temporal relationships among activities and interactions taking place in both physical and virtual spaces. However, virtual activities and interactions conducted via ICT have characteristics that cannot be properly represented and analyzed under the classical time-geographic framework. This paper extends classical time-geographic concepts to accommodate the needs of representing and analyzing all activities and interactions in a hybrid physical–virtual space. In addition, this paper presents a space–time geographic information system (GIS) design that is capable of organizing complex activity and interaction data as spatio-temporal processes in an integrated space–time environment. This space–time GIS design offers a useful analytical environment for researchers to study increasingly dynamic human activity and travel patterns in today’s society and their implications toward changing travel demand patterns from both spatial and temporal perspectives.

DOI

[34]
Yin L, Shaw S L.Exploring space-time paths in physical and social closeness spaces: a space-time GIS approachOxford[J]. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 2015, DOI: 10.1080/13658816.2014.978869.Exploring the evolution of people’s social interactions along with their changing physical locations can help to achieve a better understanding of the processes that generate the relationships between physical distance and social interactions, which can benefit broad fields of study related to social networks. However, few studies have examined the evolving relationships between physical movements and social closeness evolution. This is partially related to the shortage of longitudinal data in both physical locations and social interactions and the lack of an exploratory analysis environment capable of effectively investigating such a process over space and time. With the increasing availability of sociospatiotemporal data in recent years, it is now feasible to examine the relationships between physical separation and social interactions at the individual level in a space–time context. This research was intended to offer a spatiotemporal exploratory analysis approach to address this challenge. The first step was to propose the concept of a social closeness space–time path, which is an extension of the space–time path concept in time geography, to represent evolving human relationships in a social closeness space. A space–time geographical information system (GIS) prototype was then designed to support the representation and analysis of space–time paths in both physical and social closeness spaces. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed concept and design in gaining insight into the impact of physical migration on online social closeness was demonstrated through an empirical study. The contributions of this study include an extension of the time–geographic framework from physical space to social closeness space, the development of a multirepresentation approach in a GIS to integrate an individual’s space–time paths in both physical and social closeness spaces, and an exploratory analysis of the evolving relationships between physical separation and social closeness over time.

DOI

[35]
Chen J, Shaw S L, Yu H, et al. Exploratory data analysis of activity diary data: a space-time GIS approach[J]. Journal of Transport Geography, 2011,9(3):394-404.Study of human activities in space and time has been an important research topic in transportation research. Limitations of conventional statistical methods for analysis of individual-level human activities have encouraged spatiotemporal analysis of human activity patterns in a space–time context. Based on H01gerstrand’s time geography, this study presents a space–time GIS approach that is capable of representing and analyzing spatiotemporal activity data at the individual level. Specifically, we have developed an ArcGIS extension, named Activity Pattern Analyst (APA), to facilitate exploratory analysis of activity diary data. This extension covers a set of functions such as space–time path generation, space–time path segmentation, space–time path filter, and activity distribution/density pattern exploration. It also provides a space–time path based multi-level clustering method to investigate individual-level spatiotemporal patterns. Using an activity diary dataset collected in Beijing, China, this paper presents how this Activity Pattern Analyst extension can facilitate exploratory analysis of individual activity diary data to uncover spatiotemporal patterns of individual activities.

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[36]
Fang Z, Tu W, Li Q, et al. A multi-objective approach to scheduling joint participation with variable space and time preferences and opportunities[J]. Journal of Transport Geography, 2011,19(4):623-634.Activity scheduling supports activity-based analysis in travel demand management and promotes a potentially popular traveler assistance service. A multi-objective approach is proposed to schedule joint participation of multiple individuals, in which the candidate space-time opportunities for joint participation are identified by a concept of time-varying network-based prisms, and optimal opportunities for joint participation are determined by the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II) with four objectives (i) minimizing cost for congestion charges, (ii) maximizing participation desirability of time-of-day, (iii) minimizing total travel distance and (iv) time in the trips of multiple individuals. A scenario of joint participation among four people is designed and implemented to demonstrate the feasibility of this approach. The results suggest that this approach has the ability to schedule activities within real situations. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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[37]
Sinton D. The inherent structure of information as a constraint to analysis: mapping thematic data as a case study[M]. In: Dutton G. (Ed.), Harvard Papers on Geographic Information Systems, 6, Addison-Wesley, Mass, 1978.

[38]
Goodchild M F, Gong P. Perspectives on space and time in US and Chinese science[M]. In: Kwan M P, Richardson D, Wang Donggen et al. (Eds.), Space-Time Integration in Geography and GIScience, Research Frontiers in the US and China, Springer, 2015:7-20.

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