地球信息科学学报  2016 , 18 (11): 1513-1521 https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1047.2016.01513

特约稿件

场认知方式、性别和惯用空间语对地理空间定向能力影响的实验研究

高雪原1, 董卫华12**, 童依依1, 崔迪扬1

1. 北京师范大学地理学与遥感科学学院,北京 100875
2. 北京师范大学 遥感科学国家重点实验室,北京 100875

Study on the Influence of Field Cognitive Style, Gender and Spatial Terminology on Geographical Spatial Orientation Ability: based on Experiments in Virtual Space

GAO Xueyuan1, DONG Weihua12*, TONG Yiyi1, CUI Diyang1

1. School of Geography, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
2. State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China

通讯作者:  *Corresponding author: DONG Weihua, E-mail: dongweihua@bnu.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2016-05-17

修回日期:  2016-07-21

网络出版日期:  2016-11-20

版权声明:  2016 《地球信息科学学报》编辑部 《地球信息科学学报》编辑部 所有

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金项目(41471382)北京师范大学教学建设与改革项目(14-07-01)北京师范大学本科生科研 基金项目

作者简介:

作者简介:高雪原(1996-),男,山东德州人,本科生,研究方向为地理信息空间表达方式。E-mail: gaoxueyuan@bnu.edu.cn

展开

摘要

目前人们对空间定向能力影响因素的研究多关注性别与空间定向能力的关系,较少涉及场认知方式、惯用空间语等因素对空间定向能力的影响。本文以空间认知眼动实验的方式展开研究,通过国内版镶嵌图形测验(EFT)、问卷调查等途径获取被试的场认知方式、性别和惯用空间语等基本信息,使其在控制单一环境变量的虚拟三维空间中完成不同难度的定向任务。进而构建正确率和效率2个指标来衡量空间定向能力,通过统计分析确定空间定向能力的影响因素。研究结果表明:(1)不同场认知方式和不同惯用空间语人群的定向正确率和效率差异统计结果均不显著,场认知方式和惯用空间语对空间定向能力无显著影响;(2)不同性别人群之间定向效率无显著差异而正确率存在显著差异,性别对空间定向能力具有显著影响,男性的空间定向能力较女性更强。

关键词: 空间定向 ; 场认知方式 ; 性别 ; 惯用空间语 ; 眼动追踪

Abstract

Nowadays, studies of factors influencing geographical spatial orientation ability mainly concentrate on gender whereas relationships of field cognitive style and spatial terminology with spatial orientation ability have rarely been studied. This study used eye tracking technology to explore the influences of the three individual variables on spatial orientation ability. 86 people participated in the experiments with an average age of 21 (SD=2.67). First, the test of embedded figures and a questionnaire survey were carried out to collect basic information of the participants including field cognitive style, gender and habitual spatial terminology. Next, the participants were asked to complete a series of spatial orientation missions of various complexity levels in a virtual 3-D environment. Through this process, participants’ eye movements were automatically recorded by eye tracker. Spatial orientation ability was assessed by both completed results and reaction time which represent orientation accuracy and efficiency, respectively. Statistical tests were applied to test the significance of differences among different groups. Results show that there is no significant difference in orientation accuracy and efficiency among participants with different field cognitive styles as well as those with different spatial terminologies. It is demonstrated that field cognitive style and spatial terminology have no significant influence on spatial orientation ability. Participants of different genders show a significant difference in orientation accuracy which indicates that gender difference have a significant influence on spatial orientation ability. Males outperform females in the orientation tasks.

Keywords: geographical spatial orientation ; field cognitive style ; gender ; spatial terminology ; eye-tracking

0

PDF (2207KB) 元数据 多维度评价 相关文章 收藏文章

本文引用格式 导出 EndNote Ris Bibtex

高雪原, 董卫华, 童依依, 崔迪扬. 场认知方式、性别和惯用空间语对地理空间定向能力影响的实验研究[J]. , 2016, 18(11): 1513-1521 https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1047.2016.01513

GAO Xueyuan, DONG Weihua, TONG Yiyi, CUI Diyang. Study on the Influence of Field Cognitive Style, Gender and Spatial Terminology on Geographical Spatial Orientation Ability: based on Experiments in Virtual Space[J]. 地球信息科学学报, 2016, 18(11): 1513-1521 https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1047.2016.01513

1 引言

空间定向是人类生活中最为常见、应用最为广泛的空间认知过程之一。而空间定向过程是多种认知过程的集合,涉及环境(Environment)认知,运动(Movement)知觉与空间信息获取(Information Acquisition)等过程[1],具有复杂性。目前研究表明,在运用地理空间思维[2]的各种日常生活情景和地理信息科学任务中,“寻路”(Way finding)是人们最为关注的问题[3],而空间定向是寻路的关键过程之一,同时,空间定向能力又是空间思维能力的基本组成部分[4]。因此,探究空间定向能力的影响因素,以更好地研究空间定向过程,对寻路、导航策略的优化制定及地理空间认知和地理学空间思维的研究具有重要意义。

国内外对空间定向的研究内容包括空间定向能力的培养和训练、影响因素和脑机制研究及空间定向障碍的教育与训练和发生机制等;研究方法包括空间定向实验、问卷调查和生物医学等,以实验开展的研究最为普遍。其中,空间定向能力影响因素的研究,常用的定向任务[1]包括路标路线记忆(Landmark & Route Recall)、路线距离估计(Route Distance Estimation)、路线口述(Route Verbal Description)、地图绘制(Map Drawing)、方向指认(Pointing)、寻路(Way Finding)、指路(Orienteering)等。常见的空间定向能力评估指标包括正确率、反应时间、自我评估水平等。

而对于空间定向能力的影响因素,在个体差异层面上,大多数研究关注性别和空间定向能力的关系。根据Coluccia和Louse对1983-2003年性别和空间定向关系研究的统计结果[1],49.28%的研究显示男性空间定向能力优于女性,40.58%的研究显示空间定向能力不存在显著性别差异,仅10.14%的研究显示女性空间定向能力优于男性。Carol A. Lawton等的实验要求75名被试者在含有复杂走廊的室内完成“寻路”任务,发现在完成任务的过程中男性的定向能力显著强于女性[5]。而对于不同年龄组是否存在性别差异,Alexander和Walder的实验要求718名被试者按照地图标记找到目标点,结果表明各年龄组的男性成绩显著优于女性。Herman和Siegel的实验要求儿童在微型城市模型行走,记忆并尽可能详细地复述出这个城市的空间情景,结果表明在二年级和五年级的被试者中存在着显著性别差异,男孩复述的准确性显著高于女孩,而幼儿园被试群体中则没有发现性别差异。通过进一步探究,Herman认为实验结果所表现出的性别差异并不完全来自空间定向能力上的性别差异,还取决于不同性别儿童对于环境的探索兴趣[6]

另外,一些研究还关注参考框架和空间定向能力的关系。参考框架可通过惯用空间语反映,而空间语与美国National Research Council (NRC)所确定的空间思维三要素中的空间表达层次有关[7]。空间语有2种:① 绝对空间语“东西南北”,对应绝对参考框架;② 相对空间语“前后左右”,对应相对参考框架。在李钰关于参考框架与心理旋转的空间认知研究中,他发现采取相对参考框架时,心理旋转前后的方向判断无显著差异,采取绝对参考框架时,心理旋转后的方向判断出现较多错误,说明在绝对参考框架中,心理旋转会对方向判断带来较大影响[8],故惯用绝对空间语的人群定向能力较弱。而梁乐关于空间定向习惯对空间认知能力影响的研究却得出相反结论,其结果表明,绝对参考框架组被试的空间定向能力测验得分明显高于相对参考框架组被试[9],即惯用绝对空间语的人群定向能力较强。

此外,场认知方式是人在认知方面的重要特质之一,但几乎没有研究探讨过“场认知方式”和空间定向能力的关系。有些研究在单独探讨场认知方式或空间定向能力时,都曾引入“视空间工作记忆”这一概念。场认知方式理论是由美国心理学家Witkin提出的著名认知方式分类理论[10],分类依据为个体在知觉外物空间位置时参照外物还是自身的对比倾向,场依存型个体倾向于以外部环境参照物为指导,场独立型个体倾向于以内部感知线索为依据。视空间工作记忆则意在描述个体对空间信息的暂时储存与加工过程。Miyake等应用双任务研究范式,发现个体进行场依存—场独立人群划分的图形镶嵌实验时,调用并依赖工作记忆中的视觉模板与执行成分[11]。而根据Coluccia和Louse,空间定向任务所需的视空间工作记忆载荷决定了定向任务的难易程度[1]。由此可得到,依据图形镶嵌实验划分的场独立—场依存型人群很可能在视空间工作记忆高载荷的定向实验中表现出显著差异。

在实验环境的选择上,大多数研究都选择了虚拟环境或较为简单的真实环境作为空间定向环境。如Carol A.Lawton等在研究不同性别人群的寻路效果差异时,表示“为了更好地控制变量,特意选择了相对较为简单的真实环境——室内的走廊”[5];Brant等在真实户外环境中设计空间定向实验探究性别差异时,明确指出户外复杂的地物标志给实验带来了许多不可控因素,为分析带来了一定的困 难[12]。为了控制变量、降低实验复杂性、更好地探究个体因素对空间定向能力的影响,本实验环境选择了剥离地物标志的三维虚拟空间,以期排除环境因素与个体因素间的相互干扰,增强可控性。

综上所述,以往研究表明性别、参考框架与空间定向能力的关系尚存在不确定性,而直接探究场认知方式、惯用空间语和空间定向能力关系的研究较少。故本文选择场认知方式、性别和更能反映地理空间思维方式的变量——惯用空间语3个个体差异变量,在三维虚拟空间中探究它们对空间定向能力的影响,为真实地理空间定向的相关研究提供实验参考。

2 实验

2.1 实验材料

2.1.1 镶嵌图形测验

对场认知方式进行测量,国际通用的主要有2种方法:(1)棒框测验(RFT):要求被试者持续地注视木棒,直到将呈现在方框中的倾斜木棒旋转至垂直状态。此实验中,场依存型被试者易受环境因素影响,场独立型被试者不易受或很少受环境因素的影响[13];(2)镶嵌图形测验(EFT):要求被试从复杂的图形中用笔描画出镶嵌在其中的简单图形。该测验由Witkin等研发并推广应用。场依存型被试在整个做题过程中会感到非常困难并花费很长时间,但场独立型被试却与之相反,往往会在较短时间内取得较好成绩[14]。由于镶嵌图形测验不仅可以针对个体单独施测,还可以针对多人进行团体施测,具有经济、方便、省时的优点,因此本实验采用北京师范大学编制的镶嵌图形测验筛选典型场依存型和场独立型被试。该测验校正后的置信度 α=0.90,效度方面,该测验与棒框测验的相关性达极显著水平( p=0.00)(北京师范大学心理学院编著《镶嵌图形测验手册》)。

2.1.2 空间定向任务场景

实验材料(图1)为高度抽象的三维虚拟场景,由Unity 3D软件构建。整个场景只包括建筑和道路2部分,始终以第一视角呈现,并在呈现时始终保持中间为道路、左右两侧为建筑。

为了避免参杂过多环境变量的影响,造成实验结果的复杂性和难解释性,实验场景图像中道路和建筑物均无标识信息。

图1   定向任务场景图

Fig. 1   Experiment materials in 3D scenario

2.2 实验设备

采用Tobii T120眼动仪记录数据,眼动仪与2台计算机相连:一台为被试机,装有Tobii Studio软件,用来控制和呈现实验材料、采集眼动数据,该计算机屏幕分辨率为1280像素×836像素;另一台为主试机,负责眼动数据的存储和场景的迭加等。实验中,要求被试坐在被试机屏幕前方的座椅上,距离屏幕显示器65 cm左右,过程中要求被试尽量头部保持不动。

2.3 实验流程

(1)进行镶嵌图形测验,筛选典型场依存型和场独立型被试。镶嵌图形测验分为3部分:① 练习部分,共有9道题,被试有3 min时间完成此部分。

时间一到被试需立即停笔,无论做完与否。② 正式测验部分,共有10道题,规定完成时间为4 min,测验时间结束后不能再答题。③ 正式测验部分,难度稍高于第②部分,共有10道题,规定的完成时间是5 min。测验中,要求被试在复杂图形中找出,并用笔描出与参考图形对应的简单图形,描出的简单图形的大小、比例、指向与参照表上的简单图形相同时,每题计一分,漏做、画错或未完成的题目不计分。测验结果均根据统一的评分标准进行打分。

(2)填写调查问卷。调查被试的基本信息,内容除性别(男/女)、惯用空间语(惯用东西南北/惯用前后左右/都很熟悉)外,还包括年龄、地图使用频率、进行三维场景游戏的频率等。

(3)完成系列空间定向任务。引导被试坐在被试机屏幕前方的座椅上,水平注视屏幕显示器,头部距离屏幕显示器65 cm左右。进行Tobii T120眼动仪的调试,调试过程中要求被试尽量避免头部大幅度晃动。调试完成后,正式进入第(3)部分。此部分包括2个阶段:① 练习阶段,为使被试熟悉实验界面,掌握实验基本要求而设计。在练习阶段,介绍实验内容,使被试明确实验任务和按键操作方法。练习阶段内容与正式实验阶段内容相似,进行1次转向实验,结果不参与最后的数据分析。② 正式实验阶段,首先,在被试面前呈现三维虚拟街景,其前方为正北方,开始后,被试以设定速度向前移动,到达路口后,由系统随机使其向八方向之一的方向旋转,被试始终面向自己前进方向。连续转弯后被试停止前进,被试需尽可能快速地通过点击屏幕上8个方向判断正北方向在其哪个方向。

正式实验阶段包括T1-T3难度系数相异的空间定向任务,每名被试均需要完成这3次定向任务。难度一(T1)定向任务仅限于四方向旋转,难度二(T2)、三(T3)定向任务涉及八方向旋转,T3连续转向数量高于T2,即T1、T2、T3的难度逐级增加。对3种难度定向任务进行随机排序,形成G1、G2、G3三组实验内容,分别为G1={T1、T2、T3},G2={T2、T3、T1},G3={T3、T2、T1}。将G1、G2、G3对被试随机发放,以消除顺序误差,尽可能降低练习效应和疲劳效应[15]。3次难度系数相异、顺序随机的定向任务后,整场实验结束。

在被试完成空间定向任务的过程中,眼动仪将自动记录下每名被试每项任务的完成情况(正确/错误)和反应时间(从停止前进到被试做出选择)。

2.4 被试取样

本次实验共102位被试参加,有效被试数为86。被试来源于北京师范大学在读本科生与研究生,平均年龄21岁(SD=2.67)。由于实验条件所限,有效被试中男女比例差别较大,男16人,女70人;惯用“东西南北”27人,惯用“前后左右”38人,“都很熟悉”21人。所有被试裸眼或矫正视力正常,且均能使用电脑进行基本操作。

3 结果

3.1 筛选典型场独立、场依存型被试

计算每名被试在镶嵌图形测验中的得分,以判定其场认知方式。计算过程如下:

重新定义常模团体,把102位被试的镶嵌图形测验结果作为常模团体,计算公式如式(1)所示。

标准分数Z=被试得分-相应常模团体分数的平均数相应常模团体分数的标准差(1)

为了避免小数点与负值,将Z分数做下列转换(北京师范大学心理学院编著《镶嵌图形测验手册》)为式(2)所示。

Z=50+10Z(2)

计算86位有效被试的标准分数,得到每名被试的标准分数,其分布详见图2。为使实验结果更明晰,本文将Z大于55的被试划入场独立型组,Z小于45的被试划入场依存型组。

图2   被试镶嵌图形测验标准分数分布

Fig. 2   The distribution of EFT marks

3.2 场认知方式、性别、惯用空间语与定向能力的 关系

每名被试对每次任务的完成对错代表了其进行空间定向的正确率,每次正确完成任务所花的时间代表了其进行空间定向的效率,因此完成任务的对错和正确反应时间可以作为衡量定向能力的2项指标。借助这2项具体指标进行分析,得到3个变量对空间定向能力的影响情况。

对于各变量不同水平下的定向正确率,采用卡方检验( α=0.05)进行差异显著性检验,并计算关联系数V[16]。对于各变量不同水平下的定向效率,首先进行Kolmogorov-Smirnov(KS检验)检验( α=0.05)以确定各水平下正确反应时间数据是否符合正态分布,并检验方差齐性。对于“场认知方式”和“性别”,由于每个变量只含有2个水平(即2个独立样本),故若符合以上条件,则采用t 检验(统计量以t 表示, α=0.05)进行均值差异显著性检验(以下省略“均值”,简称“显著/不显著”);若不符合,则采用Mann-Whitney U检验(统计量以u 表示, α=0.05)。对于“惯用空间语”,该变量含有3个水平(即3个独立样本),故若符合以上条件,则采用ANOVA分析(统计量以F表示, α=0.05)进行多样本差异显著性检验;若不符合,则采用Kruskal-Wallis 检验(统计量以H 表示, α=0.05)。为了避免实验极端数据的影响,在进行检验之前,采用箱型图剔除极端值。

3.2.1 场认知方式

(1)定向正确率的差异显著性检验

对典型场依存型和场独立型被试完成T1、T2、T3的对错情况进行卡方检验( α=0.05)。

检验结果表明,T1、T2、T3中不同场认知方式完成任务的对错差异均不显著,且关联系数较小(T1: χ2=2.653p=0.103V=0.176,T2: χ2=1.939p=0.164V=0.150,T3: χ2=:0.004p=0.952V=0.007),因此场依存型和场独立型人群进行空间定向的正确率没有显著差异。

(2)定向效率的差异显著性检验

对典型场依存型和场独立型被试正确完成任务的平均反应时间进行差异显著性检验。各任务中各变量的均值和方差详见图3

检验结果表明,不同场认知方式之间正确完成T1、T2、T3的反应时间均无显著差异,其中T1:(U=491.5,Z=-0.777,p=0.437),T2:(U=40.0,Z=-0.881,p=0.378),T3:(U=9.0,Z=-0.64,p=0.522)。由此,场依存型和场独立型人群进行空间定向的效率没有显著差异。

综上,不同场认知方式人群之间定向正确率和效率无显著差异,故空间定向能力没有显著差异,场认知方式对空间定向能力没有显著影响。

3.2.2 性别

(1)定向正确率的差异显著性检验

对男性和女性被试完成T1、T2、T3的对错情况进行卡方检验( α=0.05)。由于男性被试数目(16)与女性被试数目(70)相差较大,因此在样本容量相差过大的情况下,转换为实际观测值的百分比进行检验计算[16-17]

检验结果表明,不同性别完成T1的对错情况差异不显著,关联系数较小( χ2=0.001p=0.978V=0.003);但完成T2的对错情况差异达到极显著水平,关联系数较大( χ2=37.222p=0.0V=0.658);完成T3的对错情况差异同样达到极显著水平,关联系数同样较大( χ2=43.86p=0.0V=0.718)。男性和女性被试完成T1对错情况的差异未通过卡方检验,但完成T2、T3对错情况的差异通过了卡方检验,差异显著,且关联系数达到0.6-0.7,为较强关联程度,由此可见,在难度较低时,男性和女性都能进行正确定向,性别的影响未得到显现,但当难度逐渐增大时,性别对定向能力的影响得到一定程度的体现,男性进行定向的平均正确率显著高于女性。因此男性和女性进行空间定向的正确率具有显著差异。

(2)定向效率的差异显著性检验

对男性和女性被试正确完成任务的平均反应时间进行差异显著性检验。各任务中各变量的均值和方差详见图3

图3   正确反应时间均值、标准差、显著性图

Fig. 3   Means, SD and Sigs of reaction time among different people

检验结果表明,不同性别之间正确完成T1、T2、T3的反应时间均无显著差异( T1:U=295.0,Z=-1.059,p=0.290 ),T2:( U=54.0,Z=-0.301,p=0.764 ),T3: ( U=6.0,Z=-0.775,p=0.439 )。由此,男性和女性进行空间定向的效率没有显著差异。

综上,不同性别人群之间定向正确率存在显著差异,效率无显著差异,故空间定向能力具有显著差异。男性的空间定向能力显著大于女性,性别对空间定向能力具有显著影响。

3.2.3 惯用空间语

(1)定向正确率的差异显著性检验

对“惯用东西南北”、“惯用前后左右”和“都很熟悉”3种被试完成T1、T2、T3的对错情况进行卡方检验( α=0.05)。

检验结果表明,T1、T2中不同惯用空间语被试完成任务的对错情况差异均不显著,且关联系数较小( T1: χ2=1.17p=0.557V=0.117,T2: χ2=3.273p=0.195V=0.163),T3在 α=0.1的水平下显著( χ2=5.547p=0.062V=0.255),说明惯用空间语此时可能会对正确率表现出一定影响,但关联系数较小,认为影响仍然不显著。因此,3种人群进行空间定向的正确率没有显著差异。

(2)定向效率的差异显著性检验

对不同惯用空间语被试正确完成任务的平均反应时间进行差异显著性检验。各任务中各变量的均值和方差详见图3

检验结果表明,不同惯用空间语之间正确完成T1的反应时间没有显著差异( H=1.098,p=0.578 ),正确完成T2的反应时间没有显著差异( H=0.554, p=0.758 ),正确完成T3的反应时间仍没有显著差异( H=4.205, p=0.122 )。由此,3种惯用空间语人群进行空间定向的效率没有显著差异。

综上,不同惯用空间语人群之间定向的正确率和效率无显著差异,故空间定向能力没有显著差异。惯用空间语对空间定向能力没有显著影响。

4 结论与讨论

4.1 实验结论分析

(1)场认知方式与空间定向能力

实验结果表明,不同场认知方式人群的空间定向正确率和效率均无显著差异,因而得到结论:场认知方式对空间定向能力无显著影响。分析产生该结论的可能原因[18]有:

① 概念上,通过镶嵌图形测验得到的场独立型-场依存型的场认知方式表示人们将环境中的一部分从其周围环境中分离出来的能力;在Witkin之后,人们将场认知方式理解为空间能力[19]、感知能力[20]、认知能力[21]和视空间工作记忆能力的一部分[22]等。而空间定向能力属于空间认知能力,指个体在所处环境中辨识方向的空间知觉能力。由此可知,场认知方式和空间定向能力在概念上的关系尚未确定,二者在本质上可能不存在直接联系。

② 实验材料上,Ghotbi-Varzaneh,Ghamary, Saemi和Zarghami的研究表明,在涉及视空间工作记忆的空间能力测试中,场独立型人群的表现优于场依存型[23],原因是前者能够在大量信息中选择性地关注可利用信息来降低认知负载、提高工作记忆效率[24],即视空间工作记忆广度较高。但是,本文为避免环境变量的干扰,实验材料不涉及地理标识信息,降低了正确完成任务所需的视空间工作记忆广度,无法凸显场独立型人群的优势,故两类人群在空间定向任务上未表现出显著差异。

(2)性别与空间定向能力

实验结果表明,虽然男性和女性的空间定向效率无显著差异,但是在T2、T3中,男性的正确率显著高于女性,因而得到结论:性别对空间定向能力具有显著影响。结合相关文献[1]对1983-2003年有关性别和空间定向能力实验研究的统计,49.28%的研究表明男性的空间定向能力优于女性,40.58%的研究表明在空间定向能力上并无性别差异,很少有研究显示女性的空间定向能力优于男性,故本次研究符合多数研究结果。而男性定向能力优于女性的可能原因有:

① 视角差异。按照真实环境、虚拟环境和地图对以往实验进行分类,仅在地图作为实验环境时,女性表现出显著优势。由于地图是唯一能够提供全局视角的实验环境,故推断女性在该视角下的定向能力优于局部视角。而本文所提供的虚拟环境中男性的优势较为显著,可能原因是女性易受给定视角所限,不能自如地将局部视角转换为全局视 角[25],定向能力有所削弱。事实上,调查被试时也发现:大多数定向能力较弱的被试会想象自己在给定虚拟环境中行走,每次转向均会进行一次方向判断;而部分定向能力较强的被试会想象自己在一幅平面“地图”上行走,通过记忆转向路线从而在任务结束时才判断方向。可见后者还通过减少判断次数来提高正确率。

② 策略差异。按照指向、寻路、地图绘制、路线距离估计等任务类型对以往实验进行分类,结果发现[26]女性更倾向于采用地物标识来判断位置和方向。由于本文的实验材料不涉及标识,故女性定向能力的削弱幅度较大。

③ 难度差异。虽然不同研究对性别是否影响空间定向能力尚无定论,但是通过梳理以往研究,可以得到规律:空间定向任务的难度越大,性别差异越显著。本文的实验现象(即对于T1,在正确率上无显著性别差异;而对于T2、T3,男性的正确率高于女性)也可以由此进行解释。

(3)惯用空间语与空间定向能力

实验结果表明,不同惯用空间语人群的空间定向正确率和效率均无显著差异,因而得到结论:惯用空间语对空间定向能力无显著影响。而梁乐等的研究表明[9],个体空间方位的思考方式受空间语的影响,并且空间思考方式一旦由语言转化成为特定的空间定向习惯后,将影响人非言语的空间认知操作。而惯用空间语与空间定向能力产生联系的主要方式为:首先,不同空间语对应不同参考框架,如汉语中的“东、南、西、北”对应绝对参考框架,“前、后、左、右”对应相对参考框架。其次,在不同定向任务中,参考框架的选择将影响心理旋转程度,惯用不同参考框架人群的心理旋转能力可能存在差异。当任务所需的心理旋转程度越小,被试的心理旋转能力越强时,空间定向能力表现越好。

为进一步验证本文中心理旋转能力和空间定向能力是否有直接关系,实验要求被试在完成镶嵌图形测验和空间定向任务后,进行心理旋转能力测验。参考Shepard和Metzler的经典心理旋转实 验[27],要求被试在规定时间内,从提供的图形中选择出能与标准图形重合的图形并写出旋转角度。所提供的图形中,一种是图形相同而方位不同,但经过旋转后能与标准图形重合;另一种图形是镜像对称的,即无论如何旋转,两图形无法重合。对每位被试的心理旋转测验成绩和空间定向能力排序并进行相关分析,结果发现,在本次实验中心理旋转与空间定向能力无显著相关性( R2=0.437, p=0.347),即无法通过心理旋转使参考框架与空间定向能力产生相关性,故表现为惯用空间语与空间定向能力无关(图4)。

图4   心理旋转能力与空间定向能力散点图

Fig. 4   The relationship between mental rotation ability and spatial orientation ability

4.2 实验材料及实验过程分析

本实验在去除地物标识的虚拟三维场景下展开,以期排除环境变量的干扰,重点关注个体变量对空间定向能力的直接影响。实验中,通过镶嵌图形测验、问卷调查等方式对个体变量所涉及的人群进行定量筛选,提高实验被试的代表性。但在整个过程中,仍存在一些不足:

(1)作为测量场认知方式的经典方法,镶嵌图形测验一直被各种实验研究用来检验人群的场认知方式。但随着人们研究的深入,越来越多的学者认为镶嵌图形测验存在一定的局限性,包括缺乏独立的场依存测量工具、划分方式过于绝对等[28]。为此,有人提出,使用依据场独立和场依存各自特点设计的问卷作为场独立、场依存认知风格测量工具,可有效地解决镶嵌图形测验的不足,而使用问卷作为测量工具更能体现认知风格特点[28]。总之,场认知方式的有效、合理检验方法有待深入探究。

(2)由于被试数量较少、随机性较低,所有被试完成镶嵌图形测验后所得的标准分数呈非正态分布,故典型场独立型和典型场依存型被试的划分效果可能存在不足。后续实验可通过增加被试数目、扩大被试来源范围等方法进行完善。

(3)迫于实验条件,男性被试与女性被试的数量差异过大,为此将实际观测值转换为百分比进行统计检验,较大程度上弥补了不同水平之间被试数目差异过大带来的不足[17]。但后续实验仍应增大男性被试数量,使男性与女性被试数目基本相当。

(4)通过问卷形式,即依据被试告知的惯用空间语来确定他们完成空间定向任务所使用的参考框架,而一些研究则通过“箭头实验”等其他方式进行判断[9]。后续研究可分析不同划分方式对划分结果是否会带来较大影响。

此外,本次实验在虚拟场景下得到的结论对真实地理空间的有效性有待进一步探究。相较真实地理空间的寻路过程,虚拟场景提供的三维空间感较差,且无法使被试完全浸入环境进行空间定向。同时,实验场景去除了地物标识而仅保留墙面和通道,缺乏真实地理空间中的环境特征和参照物。因此,本次实验过程与真实地理空间中的定向行为存在一定差异。但是,这种分解、控制变量的方式可提供一种探究思路,即对于存在诸多复杂影响因素的真实地理空间定向过程,从变量较少的最简单场景出发,可以排除变量间的相互干扰;进一步,由于确定了部分变量与空间定向的关系,可在对其控制的基础上探究新变量如地物标识对空间定向的影响,同时使实验场景逐步趋近真实地理空间。因此,场景的抽象是必要的,关键在于如何评价在不同抽象程度场景中所得结论对真实地理空间的适用性,而这一问题有待进一步探究。

5 展望

针对本次实验中存在的问题,考虑在后续研究中作出改善。首先,由于实验材料、场景及任务存在差异,不同研究得到的结果往往相悖。因此,为扩大实验施测范围、保证实验的一致性和连续性,考虑以基于互联网的大数据收集作为新研究手段:将镶嵌图形测验、空间定向任务及心理旋转测验封装为完整web程序,将被试的基本信息(如场认知方式、性别和惯用空间语)、空间定向能力指标(如正确率和效率)等录入数据库,最后编译程序在后台进行数据的统计分析并以可视化方式发布结果,以此突出网络大数据收集在社会认知领域的优势,如良好的社会性生态效度、纵向研究和社会行为网络化分析的拓展等[29]。其次,在条件允许的情况下改进实验环境,如在虚拟现实设备营造的沉浸式场景中进行空间定向、使被试佩戴无线眼镜式眼动仪在真实地理空间中完成寻路任务等,以此为大数据收集提供更为可靠的数据来源并使实验结果能逐步应用于真实地理空间。最后,为定向过程中正确率和效率表现较低的群体提供辅助材料及训练以提高其定向能力。许多研究表明,3D游戏对个体的空间能力存在积极影响,尤其是空间注意、心理旋转和视觉运动协调等[30],因此可考虑通过趣味性3D定向游戏来吸引被试参与实验并训练其空间定向能力。此外,还可根据被试特点提供环境参照地图或自我参照地图等个性化地图,以辅助空间定向中的目标搜索、地理空间信息和方位信息获取、心理旋转等过程。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


参考文献

[1] Coluccia E, Louse G.

Gender differences in spatial orientation: A review

[J]. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2004,24:329-340.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.006      URL      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

While significant gender differences in spatial abilities consistently emerge, results concerning gender differences in spatial orientation skills are mixed, ranging from “marked differences” to “no-differences”. In order to improve our understanding of this phenomenon, literature about gender differences in spatial orientation skills is reviewed from 1983 to 2003. The influence of biological and socio/cultural factors is discussed as well as the hypothesis that gender differences are due to different strategies used to solve orientation tasks. The role of personality factors and the influence of spatial anxiety in orientation performance are also discussed. An additional interpretative hypothesis is proposed highlighting the role of task-difficulty expressed in terms of Visuo-Spatial Working Memory involvement. This interpretation can explain the overall results, resolving some apparent contradictions.
[2] 鲁学军,周成虎,龚建华.

论地理空间形象思维——空间意向的发展

[J].地理学报,1999,54(5):401-408.

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.1999.05.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

本文对于作为地理思维的载体——空间意象的定义及其意义进行了论述, 对于不同类型空间意象的思维模式、含义和实质进行了初步探讨。通过对于空间意象发展的讨论, 揭示了区域地理系统是现代地理学研究地球表层的范式, 并提出应在基于地理分析不变基元——最小空间功能单元体和作为地理区域分析基本功能单元——地理景观研究基础之上, 建立地理信息系统的面向地理分析的空间数据模型。

[ Lu X J, Zhou C H, Gong J H.

On geographic spatial thinking in images: the development of spatial mental images

[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 1999,54(5):401-408. ]

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.1999.05.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

本文对于作为地理思维的载体——空间意象的定义及其意义进行了论述, 对于不同类型空间意象的思维模式、含义和实质进行了初步探讨。通过对于空间意象发展的讨论, 揭示了区域地理系统是现代地理学研究地球表层的范式, 并提出应在基于地理分析不变基元——最小空间功能单元体和作为地理区域分析基本功能单元——地理景观研究基础之上, 建立地理信息系统的面向地理分析的空间数据模型。
[3] Wakabayashi Y, Ishikawa T.

Spatial thinking in geographic science: a review of past studies and prospects for the future

[J]. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2011,21:310-311.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.07.031      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In recent years, the relationship between geographic information science (GIScience) and spatial thinking has attracted much attention in English-speaking countries. Nevertheless, vagueness remains concerning the concept of spatial thinking and its components. The aim of this paper is to review previous studies on the relationship between GIScience and spatial thinking, and to clarify the elements of spatial thinking and related terms. After discussing the basic elements of spatial thinking, it explores the relationship between GIScience and spatial thinking by dividing it into two aspects: the role of geographic information systems (GIS) in education on spatial thinking, and the role of spatial thinking in GIScience. Concerning the former, potential roles of GIS in spatial thinking education, particularly in geography and STEM disciplines, are suggested. Concerning the latter, the relationships between the body of knowledge on GIS education and the elements of spatial thinking are examined. Finally, the present situation and future prospects for studies on spatial thinking and GIScience in Japan are briefly discussed.
[4] Golledge R G, Stimson R J.Spatial behavior: a geographic perspective[M]. New York: Guilford Press, 1997.

[本文引用: 1]     

[5] Lawton A C, Charleston I S, Zieles S A.

Individual-and gender-related differences in indoor wayfinding

[J]. Environment and Behavior, 1996,28:204-219.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916596282003      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

The current study used a variety of behavioral and self-report measures to examine gender differences in way finding behavior following incidental leaming in an unfamiliar indoor environment. College students were led along a circuitous route and then asked to find their way back to the start. Choice of route back, comments made during the task, directional accuracy, and self-report after the task indicated three relatively efficient patterns of way finding and a distinctly inefficient pattern, characterized by frequent back-trailing, poor directional accuracy, and uncertainty about the task. Gender differences showed a discrepancy between measures of way finding efficiency and directional accuracy. Although there was no gender difference in choice of route back, men were significantly more accurate than women in locating the direction of the destination. Also, women reported significantly more uncertainty about carrying out the task.
[6] 陈英和. 认知发展心理学[M].杭州:浙江人民出版社,1996: 371.

[本文引用: 1]     

[ Chen Y H.Cognitive developmental psychology[M]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Publishing House, 1996: 371. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[7] National Research Council (NRC). Learning to think spatially[M]. Washington D C: National Academies Press, 2006:25.

[本文引用: 1]     

[8] 李钰.

关于参考框架和心理旋转的空间认知研究[D]

.桂林:广西师范大学,2013:1-2.

[本文引用: 1]     

[ Li Y.

Frame of reference and mental rotation spatial cognition research[D].

Guilin: Guangxi Normal University, 2013:1-2. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[9] 梁乐.

认知风格与空间定向习惯对空间认知能力的影响[D]

.武汉:武汉体育大学,2014:12-13.

[本文引用: 3]     

[ Liang L.

The influence of cognitive style and spatial orientation habit on spatial cognitive ability[D]. Wuhan,

Wuhan Institute of Physical Education, 2014:12-13. ]

[本文引用: 3]     

[10] 周江霞,张景斌,周珍.

认知方式与空间认知能力的关系研究评述

[J].数学教育学报,2007,16(3):68.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-9894.2007.03.017      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

关于中学生认知方式与空间认知能力发展的关系的研究已经很多,包 括:认知方式的相关研究;空间认知能力的相关研究;认知方式与空间认知能力的关系的相关研究.认知方式对空间图形认知能力发展的影响方面的研究尚显不足, 仅涉及到认知方式对图形推理、地图表征等的影响,认知方式对空间认知能力中的心理旋转、心理折叠、心理展开的影响却没有给以足够的重视.

[ Zhou J X, Zhang J B, Zhou Z.

Research on relations between cognitive style and spatial-cognitive ability: a review

[J]. Journal of Mathematics Education, 2007,16(3):68. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-9894.2007.03.017      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

关于中学生认知方式与空间认知能力发展的关系的研究已经很多,包 括:认知方式的相关研究;空间认知能力的相关研究;认知方式与空间认知能力的关系的相关研究.认知方式对空间图形认知能力发展的影响方面的研究尚显不足, 仅涉及到认知方式对图形推理、地图表征等的影响,认知方式对空间认知能力中的心理旋转、心理折叠、心理展开的影响却没有给以足够的重视.
[11] Miyake A, Witzki A H, Emerson M.

Field dependence-independence from a working memory perspective: a dual-task investigation of the Hidden Figures Test

[J]. Memory, 2001,9(456): 445-457.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210143000029      URL      PMID: 11747594      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Field dependence鈥搃ndependence (FDI) is a construct intensively investigated within cognitive style research, but its cognitive underpinnings are not clearly specified. We propose that performance on FDI tasks primarily reflects the operations of the visuospatial and executive components of working memory. We tested this hypothesis in a dual-task experiment with a commonly used measure of FDI, the Hidden Figures Test. The results showed that performance on this test was impaired by concurrent performance of secondary tasks that primarily tap the visuospatial component (spatial tapping) and the executive component (2-back and random number generation), but was almost unaffected by other secondary tasks (simple tapping and articulatory suppression). Moreover, an analysis of secondary task performance ruled out the possibility of strategic trade-offs and revealed an intriguing dissociation for two different sets of ''randomness'' indices for the random number generation task. These results support the hypothesised mapping between FDI and working memory components and suggest that the dual-task paradigm can provide a useful way to bring underspecified constructs like FDI into closer alignment with theoretical ideas developed within cognitive psychology.
[12] Lawton A.

C. Gender Differences in Way-Finding Strategies: Relationship to Spatial Ability and Spatial Anxiety

[J]. Sex Roles, 1994,30:765-779.

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544230      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In a study of way-finding strategies, female college students (n=288) were more likely to report using a route strategy (using instructions about routes), whereas men (n=138) were more likely to report an orientation strategy (using a sense of their own positions in relation to reference points). (SLD)
[13] 婧新桥.

大学生场认知方式对图形推理的眼动研究[D]

.贵阳:贵州师范大学,2008.

[本文引用: 1]     

[ Jing X Q.

Eye movement research on influence of cognitive style on figure reasoning[D].

Guiyang: Guizhou Normal University, 2008. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[14] Witkin H A, Mooer C A, Goodenough D R,

et al. Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications

[J]. Review of Educational Research, 1997,47(7):1-64.

https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2333-8504.1975.tb01065.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

First page of article
[15] 郭秀艳. 实验心理学[M].北京:人民教育出版社,2004:79.

[本文引用: 1]     

[ Guo X Y.Experimental psychology[M]. Beijing: People's Education Press, 2004:79. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[16] 鲁庆云,刘红霞.关于卡方检验在数学教育研究中的使用方法分析[J].统计与决策,2008(2):156-158.

[本文引用: 2]     

[ Lu Q Y, Liu H X.

Analysis on the use of chi-square test in mathematics education research

[J]. Statistics and Decision Making, 2008,2:156-158. ]

[本文引用: 2]     

[17] 陆运清.

用Pearson’s卡方统计量进行统计检验时应注意的问题

[J].统计与决策,2009,15:32-33.

URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

列联表的卡方检验用于检验两个分类变量的关联程度。文章认为,卡方数值的大小与样本容量有关,在卡方检验中,需要报告关联系数;并且,在实际应用中还需注意卡方检验的条件,在有20%以上的理论次数小于5或有理论次数小于1时不能应用卡方检验;此外,在两个变量都是顺序变量时,两个变量的关联程度用Gamma检验比用卡方检验更好。

[ Lu Y Q.

Matters that need attention regarding Pearson’s Chi-Square Statistic

[J]. Statistics and Decision Making, 2009,15:32-33. ]

URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

列联表的卡方检验用于检验两个分类变量的关联程度。文章认为,卡方数值的大小与样本容量有关,在卡方检验中,需要报告关联系数;并且,在实际应用中还需注意卡方检验的条件,在有20%以上的理论次数小于5或有理论次数小于1时不能应用卡方检验;此外,在两个变量都是顺序变量时,两个变量的关联程度用Gamma检验比用卡方检验更好。
[18] Evans C J, Richardson T E, Waring M.

Field independence: reviewing the evidence

[J]. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 2013,83:210-224.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12015      URL      PMID: 23692531      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract BACKGROUND: The construct of field independence (FI) remains one of the most widely cited notions in research on cognitive style and on learning and instruction more generally. However, a great deal of confusion continues to exist around the definition of FI, its measurement, and the interpretation of research results, all of which have served to limit our understanding of and practice in education. AIMS: This study reviews research evidence on FI and highlights key issues to frame a more informed agenda for future research. ARGUMENTS: Caution needs to be exercised over the interpretation of the evidence around FI and field dependence (FD). In tests measuring FI only, it is inappropriate to use the term FD. FI is clearly correlated with measures of spatial ability; however, whether FI is just a measure of perceptual and more specifically spatial ability is a matter of debate. Furthermore, whether FI is just a cognitive ability or a cognitive style is not the central issue, as both can be developed. FI has a significant relationship with aspects of working memory and with other variables. It is especially important in the management and interpretation of complex cognitive tasks. CONCLUSIONS: Field independence has an important role to play in the navigation of the complex and information-rich learning environments of the 21st century. It is therefore important to move beyond the present narrow focus on FI as a style or trait by acknowledging, embracing, and exploring the complexity of the interaction between individual and contextual variables. 漏 2013 The British Psychological Society.
[19] Sternberg R J.Thinking styles[M]. Cambridge, U K: Cambridge University Press,1997.

[本文引用: 1]     

[20] Zhang L F.

Field-dependence/independence: Cognitive style or perceptual ability—Validating against thinking styles and academic achievement

[J]. Personality and Individual Differences, 2004,37:1295-1311.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.12.015      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In individual differences psychology, one of the long-standing debated issues has been focusing on the nature of the field-dependence/independence construct as defined in Witkin’s theory of psychological differentiation––the pioneer work in the study of intellectual styles. The present study examines the nature of the field-dependence/independence construct against academic achievement as well as against the thinking style construct as defined in Sternberg’s theory of mental self-government. Participants were 200 (154 female and 46 male) students enrolled in a large comprehensive university in Shanghai, the People’s Republic of China. Participants responded to the Group Embedded Figures Test and the Thinking Styles Inventory. Students’ academic achievements were also examined in relation to their field-dependence/independence (FDI) and thinking style scores. Major findings are (1) the FDI and the thinking style constructs were unrelated; and (2) whereas particular thinking styles were related to the students’ overall achievement in mathematics courses and courses in the Chinese language, the FDI scores were related only to students’ achievement in geometry. It was concluded that the field-dependence/independence construct represents perceptual ability, but not a broad cognitive style.
[21] Miyake A, Witzki A H, Emerson M J.

Field dependence-independence from a working memory perspective: A dual-task investigation of the Hidden Figures Test

[J]. Memory, 2001,9:445-457.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210143000029      URL      PMID: 11747594      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Field dependence鈥搃ndependence (FDI) is a construct intensively investigated within cognitive style research, but its cognitive underpinnings are not clearly specified. We propose that performance on FDI tasks primarily reflects the operations of the visuospatial and executive components of working memory. We tested this hypothesis in a dual-task experiment with a commonly used measure of FDI, the Hidden Figures Test. The results showed that performance on this test was impaired by concurrent performance of secondary tasks that primarily tap the visuospatial component (spatial tapping) and the executive component (2-back and random number generation), but was almost unaffected by other secondary tasks (simple tapping and articulatory suppression). Moreover, an analysis of secondary task performance ruled out the possibility of strategic trade-offs and revealed an intriguing dissociation for two different sets of ''randomness'' indices for the random number generation task. These results support the hypothesised mapping between FDI and working memory components and suggest that the dual-task paradigm can provide a useful way to bring underspecified constructs like FDI into closer alignment with theoretical ideas developed within cognitive psychology.
[22] Rittschof K A.

Field dependence-independence as visuospatial and executive functioning in working memory: implications for instructional systems design and research

[J]. Educational Technology Research and Development, 2010,58:99-114.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-008-9093-6      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Field dependence09“independence (FDI) has long been conceptualized and discussed as a cognitive style relevant to numerous educational approaches and outcomes. However, the FDI construct is most often measured as a cognitive ability, as opposed to a style, using instruments such as the Group-Embedded Figures test (GEFT) or the Hidden Figures Test (HFT). Specifically, FDI is typically measured as visuospatial ability and executive functioning in working memory. While measurement and use of FDI within psychological and educational research has often resulted in misleading or inconsistent discussion about cognitive styles, this review examines how the long history of FDI research continues to be relevant to contemporary instructional contexts. A broader recognition of FDI as ability is suggested in order to (a) better distinguish ability measurements from those of styles, (b) encourage a reinterpretation and awareness of theoretical connections among past studies that use instruments such as GEFT or HFT, and (c) highlight suggestions for future research and application, particularly with contemporary interactive multimedia learning tools.
[23] Ghotbi-Varzaneh A, Ghamary A, Saemi E, Zarghami M.

Individual differences in working memory and motor performance: a cognitive style approach

[J]. American Journal of Psychological Research, 2011,7:31-42.

https://doi.org/10.1097/01.hjh.0000468265.54191.39      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

ABSTRACT Previous research has showed that field independent participants show better performance in almost all tasks than field dependent participants. The present study designed to examine whether participants with different field dependence-independence cognitive style show differences in performance of tasks measuring working memory and accuracy. Forty three undergraduates were classified in 3 groups based on the total scores of the Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT) (field dependent, neutral, and field independent). The results showed that field independent participants displayed better performance than neutral and field dependent participants on Spatial Span, Digit Span, and Dart throwing tasks. The findings indicated that higher score on the GEFT task demonstrate a better visuospatial ability (as component of working memory) in field independent which it may cause better performance in Spatial Span, Digit Span, and Dart throwing tasks
[24] Kozhevnikov M.

Cognitive styles in the context of modern psychology: Toward an integrated framework of cognitive style

[J]. Psychological Bulletin, 2007,133:464-481.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.464      URL      PMID: 17469987      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The goals of this article are to elucidate trends and perspectives in the field of cognitive style research and to propose an integrated framework to guide future research. This is accomplished by means of a comprehensive literature review of the major advances and the theoretical and experimental problems that have accumulated over the years and by a discussion of the promising theoretical models that can be further developed, in part, with modern neuroscience techniques and with research from different psychological fields. On the basis of the research reviewed in this article, the author suggests that cognitive styles represent heuristics that individuals use to process information about their environment. These heuristics can be identified at multiple levels of information processing, from perceptual to metacognitive, and they can be grouped according to the type of regulatory function they exert on processes ranging from automatic data encoding to conscious executive allocation of cognitive resources.
[25] Sandstrom N.

J, Kaufman J, Huettel S. A. Males and females use different distal cues in a virtual environment navigation task

[J]. Cognitive Brain Research, 1998,6:351-360.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(98)00002-0      URL      PMID: 9593991      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The study of navigational ability in is often limited by the restricted availability and inconvenience of using large novel environments. In the present study we use a computer-generated virtual environment to study sex differences in spatial navigation. Adult male and female participants navigated through a virtual water maze where both landmarks and room geometry were available as distal cues. Manipulation of environmental characteristics revealed that females rely predominantly on landmark information, while males more readily use both landmark and geometric information. We discuss these results as a possible link between recent research reporting hippocampal activation in spatial tasks and animal work showing sex differences in both spatial ability and hippocampal .
[26] Lawton C A.

Strategies for indoor way-finding: the role of orientation

[J]. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 1996,16:137-145.

https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1996.0011      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This study identified self-reported strategies for indoor wayfinding, and examined their correlation with strategies previously identified for outdoor wayfinding. Relationships of indoor strategies with spatial anxiety and gender differences were also examined. Validity of the self-report measures was assessed in relation to accuracy in an actual pointing task. Results from 278 college students showed that indoor reliance on directional cues correlated with the outdoor orientation strategy and indoor reliance on route information correlated with the outdoor route strategy. Consistent with findings for outdoor strategies, men reported higher use of the indoor orientation strategy and women reported higher use of the indoor route strategy. Indoor and outdoor orientation strategies were associated with low levels of spatial anxiety, and gender, orientation strategies, and spatial anxiety predicted pointing accuracy.
[27] Shepard R N, Metzler J.

Mental rotation of three dimensional objects

[M]. Science, 1971,171(3972):701-703.

[本文引用: 1]     

[28] 陆梦菊.

论场独立/场依存测量工具镶嵌图形的局限性

[J].社会科学家,2006,10:333-334.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-3240.2006.z1.163      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

本文论述了镶嵌图形作为场独立/场依存认知风格测量工具的局限性,指出二语习得研究中,使用依据场独立和场依存各自特点设计的问卷作为场独立/场依存认知风格测量工具,可有效解决镶嵌图形作为场独立/场依存认知风格测量工具的不足,提出使用问卷作为测量工具更能体现认知风格特点.

[ Lu M J.

Limitations of embedded figure test

[J]. Social Scientist, 2006,10:333-334. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-3240.2006.z1.163      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

本文论述了镶嵌图形作为场独立/场依存认知风格测量工具的局限性,指出二语习得研究中,使用依据场独立和场依存各自特点设计的问卷作为场独立/场依存认知风格测量工具,可有效解决镶嵌图形作为场独立/场依存认知风格测量工具的不足,提出使用问卷作为测量工具更能体现认知风格特点.
[29] 申学易,买晓琴,刘超.

基于互联网平台的大数据收集在社会认知研究中的应用

[J].科学通报,2015,60(11):986-987.

https://doi.org/10.1360/n972014-00827      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于互联网的大数据收集是社会认知领域的新兴研究手段.本文主要介绍了基于以MTurk,Micro Turk等为代表的、具有交易功能的大型行为数据网络收集平台进行的社会认知领域的研究,从网络平台大数据采样的数据质量和大数据对社会认知领域新方向的启发两方面进行阐述,总结了网络大数据在样本范围和数量、分析方法和实验情境上相比传统实验室数据采集的优势和不足.虽然互联网平台的大数据收集还有无法完全控制被试完成任务、存在难以通过大量样本平衡的变量等一系列问题,但这一研究方式的社会性生态效度佳,且在纵向研究和社会行为的网络化分析等方面表现出独有优势,在社会认知领域的研究中具有广阔的应用前景.

[ Shen X Y, Mai X Q, Liu C.

Application of Internet-based big data in social cognitive science

[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin, 2015,60(11):986-987. ]

https://doi.org/10.1360/n972014-00827      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于互联网的大数据收集是社会认知领域的新兴研究手段.本文主要介绍了基于以MTurk,Micro Turk等为代表的、具有交易功能的大型行为数据网络收集平台进行的社会认知领域的研究,从网络平台大数据采样的数据质量和大数据对社会认知领域新方向的启发两方面进行阐述,总结了网络大数据在样本范围和数量、分析方法和实验情境上相比传统实验室数据采集的优势和不足.虽然互联网平台的大数据收集还有无法完全控制被试完成任务、存在难以通过大量样本平衡的变量等一系列问题,但这一研究方式的社会性生态效度佳,且在纵向研究和社会行为的网络化分析等方面表现出独有优势,在社会认知领域的研究中具有广阔的应用前景.
[30] 高馨颖.

认知风格、心理旋转、3D游戏控制偏好之间的关系研究[D]

.杭州:浙江大学,2013:14-15.

[本文引用: 1]     

[ Gao X Y.

Exploration of relationship among cognitive style, mental rotation and 3D game control preference[D].

Hangzhou: Zhejiang University, 2015:14-15. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

/